| Manufacturer | Toyota |
|---|---|
| Production | 1997-2003 |
| Assembly | Tahara, Aichi, Japan Toyota City, Japan |
| Class | Mini SUV |
| Body style | 4-door SUV |
| Layout | FF layout |
| Transmission | Fixed ratio |
| Wheelbase | 94.9 in (2,410 mm) |
| Length | 156.7 in (3,980 mm) |
| Width | 66.7 in (1,694 mm) |
| Height | 64.4 in (1,636 mm) |
The RAV4 EV is an all-electric version of the popular RAV4 SUV produced by Toyota. It was leased from 1997 to 2003, and at the lessees' request, many units were sold after the vehicle was discontinued.[1] A total of 1,485 were leased and/or sold in California to meet the state’s mandate for Zero-emissions vehicle.[2] As of the second half of 2010 there are almost 750 units still in use.[3]
Toyota is working together with Tesla Motors to develop a second generation RAV4 EV, and the companies expect the vehicle to be mass produced by 2012.[2][4] The initial roll-out in the U.S is scheduled for the first half of 2012 and sales will be limited initially to California only.[5]
Contents |
The first fleet version of the RAV4 EV became available on a limited basis in 1997. In 2001 it was possible for businesses, cities or utilities to lease one or two of these cars. Toyota then actually sold or leased 328 RAV4 EVs to the general public in 2003, at which time the program was terminated despite waiting lists of prospective customers.
The RAV4 EV closely resembles the regular internal combustion engine (ICE) version - without a tailpipe - and has a governed top speed of 78 mph (~126 km/h) with a range of 100 to 120 miles (160 to 190 km). The 95 amp-hour NiMH battery pack has a capacity of 27 kWh, charges inductively and has proven to be surprisingly durable. Some RAV4 EVs have achieved over 150,000 miles (240,000 km) on the original battery pack. It was also one of the few vehicles with a single speed automatic transmission at that time.
Besides the batteries, controller and motor, the remaining systems in the RAV4 EV are comparable to the gasoline-powered RAV4, such as power brakes, power steering, air conditioning, tire wear and suspension components except for the power sources involved. The power brakes use an electric pump to provide vacuum instead of deriving vacuum from the engine manifold while the power steering and air conditioning systems use electric motors instead of mechanical energy delivered by fan belts. The passenger compartment is heated electrically.
The RAV4 EV has a governed top speed of 78 miles per hour (126 km/h), a tested 0-60 time of around 18 seconds (depending on state-of-charge on the batteries) and a range of 80 to 120 miles (130 to 190 km). Mileage depends on the same factors as a traditional gasoline-powered vehicle, mainly rolling resistance and average speed (aerodynamic drag).
The RAV4 EV has 24 12-volt 95Ah NiMH batteries capable of storing 27.4 kWh of energy.
The RAV4 EV's batteries can be recharged from being fully depleted to fully charged in about five hours, and are monitored with a passive battery balancing system. Electricity is supplied via a Magne Charge inductive charging paddle[6] from a wall-mounted 6000-Watt charging unit on a 220 volt, 30 amp, North American "clothes dryer"-type plug.
As of May 2006, charging a RAV4 EV from full-dead to full-charge, at a rate of US$0.09 per kilowatt-hour, costs around US$2.70. As of May 2008, based on a gasoline price-per-gallon cost of US$3.80 and up and the non-EV 2003 RAV4 2-wheel-drive gasoline fuel efficiency of 27 mpg-US (8.7 L/100 km; 32 mpg-imp), the RAV4 EV costs approximately 25% as much to fully charge, and makes mileage in the RAV4 EV the cost equivalent to a 111.1 mpg-US (2.117 L/100 km; 133.4 mpg-imp) small SUV.
In addition, the RAV4 EV has a charge timer built into the dashboard that enables the vehicle to start charging at a specific time. As the RAV4 EV easily becomes the main cost of electricity in an average-sized home, this enables the owner to use a Time-Of-Day Meter to reduce electricity costs. This configuration is a standard practice with RAV4 EV owners. The price of electricity at night depends on the carrier, but is usually in the range of 60% of the normal rate. In the use of charging the RAV4 EV, this equates to a cheaper cost-per-mile, roughly equivalent to a vehicle capable of 166.6 mpg-US (1.412 L/100 km; 200.1 mpg-imp), based on a price of US$3.00 per gallon.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency listed mileage ratings for the RAV4 EV in its yearly Fuel Economy Guide from 2000 through 2003. The 2003 model recorded city mileage equivalent to 125 mpg-US (1.88 L/100 km; 150 mpg-imp), and 100 mpg-US (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg-imp) on the highway. Estimated combined mileage was 112 mpg-US (2.10 L/100 km; 135 mpg-imp).
For comparison, a reasonably modern European supermini may manage motorway travel at 5 L/100 km (56 mpg-imp; 47 mpg-US) or 6.5 L/100 km (43 mpg-imp; 36 mpg-US) in city traffic, while an average North American mid-size car travels 9 L/100 km (31 mpg-imp; 26 mpg-US), 11 L/100 km (26 mpg-imp; 21 mpg-US) city.
The RAV4 EV's battery system is a consumable item. Toyota reports that battery pack replacement costs are currently higher than the value of the used vehicle.[7] Toyota tested the RAV4 EV in Japan for 300,000 miles (480,000 km) over two years before introducing the vehicle in the United States. The economies of scale are affecting the replacement cost of the RAV4 EV.
RAV4 EV pre-production prototypes were first released in a confidential evaluation program with electric utilities throughout the U.S. These prototypes were based on the smaller, shorter, two-door version of the RAV4. The prototypes included some versions fitted with Panasonic NiMH batteries, and others with high-performance Panasonic lead–acid PbA batteries (the same ones that eventually found their way into the EV1 and other production GM electric vehicles). The RAV4 EV prototypes also were equipped with on-board level 2 chargers and connected via a front fender conductive charger coupling made by Yazaki Corporation. Both prototypes were well accepted.
The utility employee evaluators did not have to personally pay for the more costly and advanced NiMH batteries, and the NiMH RAV4 EV prototype received better reviews, due to its increased range. Its energy efficiency, however, was not as good as the PbA version. Due to the impracticality of developing two battery types for a limited volume program, Toyota opted for the higher-performance, higher-cost NiMH RAV4 EV. This resulted in a greater manufacturing cost, and higher purchase price.
A number of electric vehicle advocates voiced disappointment that the choice was made to manufacture only the NiMH version. Many electric vehicle advocates claim that automaker's choice of the NiMH battery worked against the 90's deployment of cost-effective electric vehicles based on PbA batteries, and that further development of lead–acid technology could result in performance equal to NiMH, but at a substantially lower price. Their argument is that a usable electric vehicle is possible at a substantially lower price, and that the lower purchase price would foster greater acceptance of electric vehicles.
Initially, RAV4 EVs were only available for three-year fleet lease, not for sale and not for lease to the public, at a few dealerships beginning in 1997. From 2001, leases were made available to small "fleets of one" purportedly run by small businesses.
In March 2002, due to a shift in corporate policy, the Toyota RAV4-EV was made available for sale to the general public, but only 328 of them sold. No one knows for certain what prompted Toyota to change their position on the RAV4-EV, since they had long since fulfilled their obligations under the MOA with the California Air Resources Board's zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate via its fleet lease program.
The MSRP was US$42,000; but in California, ZIP-grant rebates of US$9,000, decreasing in 2003 to US$5,000, and a US$4,000 credit from the Internal Revenue Service brought the price down to a more palatable US$29,000 (US$33,000 for some 2003 deliveries), including the home charger.[8]
By November 2002, the 328 RAV4-EV’s Toyota had committed to were sold, yet demand was continuing to build. Toyota was caught off-guard by the extent of the demand because the vehicle's retail buyers had outsold the projections far faster than the vehicles could be supplied to market - despite very little advertising, and very little public awareness of the product.
There was certainly a market for these vehicles, because many GM EV1, Ford Ranger EV and Honda EV Plus drivers had been reluctantly forced to surrender their cars – in some cases to the crusher – and had become disillusioned with the carmakers. Potential buyers were encouraged by the perception that Toyota was finally playing fair.
More RAV4-EVs were sold than had been planned for manufacture through standard assembly line techniques. Toyota filled every order despite the fact that the last few dozen vehicles had to be assembled from spare parts due to a shortfall of production components (a significantly more expensive way of building a vehicle). This unexpected development caused deliveries to trickle on into September 2003. It also caused variations in the vehicles such as heated seats, retractable antennae, mats, etc.
Once the last of the 328 EVs was sold in November 2002, the website disappeared and the EV program was unceremoniously scrapped. No additional cars could be bought because Toyota didn’t have anything to sell. The RAV4-EV was based on the 1996-2000 gasoline powered RAV4, which had since been replaced. Toyota claimed that tens of thousands of orders would have been necessary for them to resume or continue production, and development time would have been a major obstacle.
Toyota discontinued the RAV4 EV program one day after the passing of new air-quality requirements by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). CARB eliminated most of the Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) requirement, substituting a greater number of Partial Zero-Emissions Vehicles (PZEVs) to meet the requirement. A Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV) category was also added. This program requirement was designed to obtain equivalent emissions reductions by substituting less expensive, more general purpose vehicles.
Like other manufacturers, Toyota began destroying RAV4 EVs as they came off lease, after lease continuances were denied to owners. In 2005 an agreement was struck between Toyota and DontCrush.com (now PlugInAmerica.com) to stop the destruction and facilitate the continued operation of owned and leased vehicles. While no longer sold, the vehicle is still supported by selected Toyota service centers (mainly in California) and a strong owner community.
The RAV4 EV is driven daily by hundreds of owners, now across the United States. These owners have built up an online community and have worked out ways to add options to the RAV4 EV never offered by Toyota, with the most popular being keyless door entry and cruise control.
A total of 1,485 were leased and/or sold in California.[4]
Whether or not Toyota wanted to continue production, it was unlikely to be able to do so because the EV-95 battery was no longer available. Chevron had inherited control of the worldwide patent rights for the NiMH EV-95 battery when it merged with Texaco, which had purchased them from General Motors. Chevron's unit won aUS$30,000,000 settlement from Toyota and Panasonic, and the production line for the large NiMH batteries was closed down and dismantled. This case was settled in the ICC International Court of Arbitration, and not publicised due to a gag order placed on all parties involved.[9][10] Only smaller NiMH batteries, incapable of powering an electric vehicle or plugging in, are currently allowed by Chevron-Texaco.[11]
In July 2009, Cobasys NiMH division (Chevron-Texaco), was sold to a Bosch and Sanyo consortium, but still retained the patent rights and collect royalties on the batteries. (See also Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries).
Since May 2010, Toyota Motor Company and Tesla Motors have been working together to develop a second generation RAV4 EV using Tesla's electric motor and batteries and Toyota's platform and body. It is being developed by Tesla and Toyota Technical Center U.S.A. in Michigan. The first prototype was built in just three weeks[12] and was undergoing testing by July 2010. The two companies expect the vehicle to be due for mass production by 2012.[4][13] According to Toyota, the initial roll-out the RAV4 EV will be available to individual consumers and fleet customers.[14]
A second generation RAV4 EV demonstrator was unveiled at the November 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show. Toyota is building 35 of these converted RAV4s for a demonstration and evaluation program that will run through 2011. The lithium metal-oxide battery and other power train components were supplied by Tesla Motors.[15][16] The RAV4 EV was one of the five finalists to the 2011 Green Car Vision Award.[17]
The second generation RAV4 EV production models use the SAE J1772 charging standard,[18] Early prototypes have a 660-pound lithium-ion battery pack with a 50 kWh total capacity, 37 kWh usable, and an estimated range of 80 to 120 mi (130 to 190 km).[19]
The RAV4 EV will be assembled in 2012 at Toyota's facility in Woodstock, Ontario along with the regular gasoline version. Tesla will build the electric powertrain at its plant at Palo Alto, California, and it will ship them to Canada.[20][21] The U.S. market launch is scheduled for 2012 and initially will be sold only in California.[22][5]